Ćwarmin: Complements

Although Ćwarmin does have a verb that can serve as a copula, it is not used very often.

The copula is invariant with regards to subject person. In the present, it is au. In the immediate past, it is amca, in the far past its aun. There is also a negative version, ainik, amśik, aunik.

The following circumstances call for a copula:

• an adjectival complement that is not in the nominative-complement case

Ćwarmin adjectives can have their meanings altered by case suffixes. The particular changes in meaning are described here. Nominative complements signal prevailing or constant qualities of something. Even nominative complements require a copula.

• a complement phrase that is headed by a postposition
• a complement that is a heavy phrase, a phrase that has an embedded verb or consists of lots of words with some structure
• Confirming or affirming a statement about something. Pəćitiś dostur au - spirit-plur.acc.def pay.homage-past-1sg is - I do pay homage to the spirits.
• often, the negative copula is used as a negation particle even in transitive utterances.
• when the tense is relevant and not easily inferred from context
  
• with an implicit quality, or a coordinated or contrasted quality (Ešpək suŕurŋaca l Tuśu au. Eshpək is a widower, as is Tusyu.

Normally, the complement goes sentence-finally if no copula is present. If a copula is present, though, the complement precedes it.

Other verbs that take complements are

dəšip - to be named. The name is generally in the complement case, although the verb also can signify membership in a group. In the latter case, the complement is in the general ablative. The negative case can signify both not being a member or not being called something.

xuvop - to become. Complement case signifies becoming, instrumental signifies intensification for some already present quality. Negative signifies cessation of some quality.

daval - to considered oneself something

Object complements generally only are in the object complement case or the accusative case. Therefore, transitive verbs with complements often have more related forms that code for things that cases would code for with the intransitive verb, i.e.

davlap - to consider someone something (complement goes closer to the verb than the object does)

davlakol - not to consider someone something